Research Article |
Corresponding author: Rafael Felipe de Almeida ( dealmeida.rafaelfelipe@gmail.com ) Academic editor: Brecht Verstraete
© 2023 Rafael Felipe de Almeida, Marco O.O. Pellegrini, Isa L. de Morais, Rosangela Simão-Bianchini, Pantamith Rattanakrajang, Martin Cheek, Ana Rita G. Simões.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
de Almeida RF, Pellegrini MO, de Morais IL, Simão-Bianchini R, Rattanakrajang P, Cheek M, Simões ARG (2023) Barking up the wrong tree: the dangers of taxonomic misidentification in molecular phylogenetic studies. Plant Ecology and Evolution 156(2): 146-159. https://doi.org/10.5091/plecevo.101135
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Background and aims – Keraunea is a Brazilian endemic genus that has sat uncomfortably in Convolvulaceae where it was placed due to an enlarged and adnate fruit bract typical of Neuropeltis. A recent molecular phylogeny suggested that two of its five morphologically almost identical species actually belong to two different families, Malpighiaceae (superrosids) and Ehretiaceae (superasterids). Later studies have demonstrated that Keraunea effectively belongs to Ehretiaceae, but the proposal of one species belonging to Malpighiaceae has remained problematic. In this study, we re-assess this hypothesis, discuss the issues that have led to this assumption, and offer insights on the importance of carefully using herbarium collections and incorporating morphological evidence in systematic studies.
Material and methods – Sequences of matK, rbcL, and ITS for all 77 currently accepted genera of Malpighiaceae, K. brasiliensis and Elatinaceae (outgroup) were compiled from GenBank and analysed with Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian Inference criteria for nuclear, plastid and combined datasets. Additional database and herbarium studies were performed to locate and analyse all duplicates of the holotype of K. brasiliensis to check for misidentified or contaminated material.
Key results – Our examination of expanded DNA datasets and herbarium sheets of all K. brasiliensis isotypes revealed that a mistake in tissue sampling was, in fact, what led to this species being proposed to belong in Malpighiaceae. Kew’s isotype had a leaf of Malpighiaceae (likely Mascagnia cordifolia) stored in the fragment capsule, which was sampled and sequenced instead of the actual leaves of K. brasiliensis. Recently published studies have settled the placement of Keraunea in Ehretiaceae (Boraginales) and proposed three additional species.
Conclusions – DNA sequences can be helpful in classifying taxa when morphology is conflicting or of a doubtful interpretation, with molecular phylogenetic placement being established as a popular tool accelerating the discovery of systematic relationships. Nonetheless, molecular techniques are also susceptible to methodological mistakes, which necessitates building a solid foundation of plant morphology and taxonomy to avoid artefacts in phylogenetic studies.
Boraginales, collections, Convolvulaceae, DNA extraction, Malpighiales, phylogenetics, taxonomy
For the past four decades, phylogenetic studies have relied on biological collections, such as herbaria, as an essential source of DNA samples. These collections provide easy access to a wealth of specimens that could otherwise only be obtained via costly or difficult fieldwork, such as: 1) specimens from a wide range of geographical locations (e.g. different continents); 2) scarce plant material available (e.g. only the type specimen); 3) threatened or extinct species; and 4) geographically restricted populations (
A common issue with using herbarium samples for DNA extraction is contamination and misidentification, usually occurring during laboratory procedures (
Keraunea was first published by
Field photographs of the fruits of (A) Keraunea brasiliensis Cheek & Simão-Bianchini (Ehretiaceae), photo by Domingos Cardoso; (B) Neuropeltis racemosa Wall. (Convolvulaceae), photo by Pantamith Rattanakrajang; (C) Calycobolus campanulatus (K.Schum. ex Hallier f.) Heine (Convolvulaceae), photo by Olivier Lachenaud, and (D) Mascagnia cordifolia (A.Juss.) Griseb. (Malpighiaceae), photo by Marco O.O. Pellegrini.
A recent large-scale phylogenetic study of the family, using nuclear genomic data with target capture techniques (
We have found these results difficult to reconcile with the existing taxonomic knowledge of these plant groups, especially considering how evolutionarily distant Malpighiaceae and Ehretiaceae are and how both species of Keraunea are remarkably morphologically similar to each other. Hence, in order to explain the polyphyly of Keraunea, the occurrence of an exceptional morphological convergence between members of these two very distinct and distantly-related families would be necessary. As a result, our goal is to provide a plausible explanation for these curious results with a re-analysis of all available evidence. In this study, we test the placement of Passos et al. 5263 (“Keraunea brasiliensis”) in Malpighiaceae through a set of comprehensive phylogenetic and herbarium analyses of the same specimens and expanded DNA datasets as
Datasets were compiled, for each marker, using Geneious v.4.8 (
Images of the holotype and all isotypes of Keraunea brasiliensis (Passos et al. 5263) were searched in online specimen databases, such as GBIF (https://www.gbif.org), JSTOR (https://plants.jstor.org), Jabot (http://jabot.jbrj.gov.br), Reflora (https://reflora.jbrj.gov.br), and speciesLink (https://specieslink.net). The Kew isotype (K000979156) was consulted in person at the Kew herbarium (Rafael Almeida, Ana Rita Simões, and Martin Cheek), and the Brazilian duplicates (ALCB, CEPEC, HRCB, HUEFS, and SPF; acronyms according to
The topologies of the nuclear, plastid, and combined phylogenetic trees were found to be highly congruent. Hence, we have chosen to discuss the results in light of the combined analysis instead of the individual datasets (for additional information, see supplementary files). “Keraunea brasiliensis” (Passos et al. 5263) was recovered with high support as nested within the genus Mascagnia in the Malpighioid clade by both the individual and combined analyses, using BI and ML inference criteria (Fig.
Consensus tree of the combined analysis based on the markers matK, rbcL, and ITS showing the phylogenetic placement of “Keraunea brasiliensis” (Passos et al. 5263) (highlighted in red) within Malpighiaceae, making the family non-monophyletic. Elatinaceae (highlighted in light grey) represents the outgroup and the root of this analysis. Bootstrap values from the ML are shown above the branches, and posterior probabilities from the BI are shown below the branches. The tree on the left is presented for branch length visualisation. Photographs of Elatine gratioloides A.Cunn. by Melissa Hutchison, Stigmaphyllon angustilobum A.Juss. by Rafael F. de Almeida, and Keraunea spp. by Geovane S. Siqueira.
Consensus tree of the combined analysis based on the markers matK and rbcL showing the phylogenetic placement of “Keraunea brasiliensis” (Passos et al. 5263) (highlighted in red) within Mascagnia. Amorimia W.R.Anderson (highlighted in light grey) represents one of the outgroups, and Ectopopterys W.R.Anderson is the root of this analysis. Bootstrap values from the ML are shown above the branches, and posterior probabilities from the BI are shown below the branches. The tree on the left is shown for branch length visualisation. Photographs of Amorimia ssp. by Fabián Michelangeli, Mascagnia cordifolia by Marco O.O. Pellegrini, and Mascagnia australis C.E.Anderson by Climbie F. Hall.
In light of the confirmation of the molecular evidence by
Nonetheless, these authors do not explicitly state which duplicate of Passos et al. 5263 was sequenced (from the six available specimens: ALCB, CEPEC, HRCB, HUEFS, K, or SPF), although it is mentioned by the authors that only the K herbarium was visited in person. However, the K isotype (K000979156) was not annotated to indicate that it had been sampled for DNA studies by the authors. In fact, this isotype only had a DNA sample slip dated from 2019 for unpublished molecular phylogenetic studies led by Kew’s in-house researcher Dr Tim Utteridge. Thus, we also looked at the possibility of the sequences of K. brasiliensis generated by
During the examination of the K isotype of K. brasiliensis (Passos et al. 5263), it was found that the plant was entirely glued to the sheet, and some detached leaves and fruits were stored in a paper capsule on the left lower side of the sheet (Fig.
Photograph of the isotype of Keraunea brasiliensis (Passos et al. 5263) deposited at RBG Kew’s herbarium showing the open fragment capsule storing leaves of K. brasiliensis (lower photographic detail showing unbranched hairs with bulbous base) and a single leaf of Mascagnia cordifolia (upper photographic detail showing 2-branched hairs). Photograph by Rafael Felipe de Almeida.
Thus, our critical re-analysis of the molecular and morphological data used by
It is not uncommon for molecular phylogenetic studies to demonstrate that genera, and every so often species, are not monophyletic. In fact, the main contribution of molecular phylogenetic studies to plant systematics has been to challenge traditional classification systems based on morphological dogmas. One of the most famous cases is the dicotyledon/monocotyledon traditional division of flowering plants, which was challenged and reorganised into an entirely different system of subdivisions of flowering plants once the first molecular phylogenetic studies demonstrated the non-monophyletic nature of the dicotyledons (
When
The case of the Keraunea brasiliensis isotype being phylogenetically misplaced in Malpighiaceae could have been avoided if
Morphological differences between the leaves of Keraunea brasiliensis (Ehretiaceae, Boraginales, superasterids) and Mascagnia cordifolia (Malpighiaceae, Malpighiales, superrosids).
Keraunea brasiliensis | Mascagnia cordifolia | |
Petiole | ||
Shape | Canaliculate | D-shaped in cross-section |
Glands | Absent | 1-glandular at the base near the insertion with the stem, gland discoid |
Leaf blade | ||
Overall shape | Elliptic to lanceolate | Orbicular to broadly elliptic to ovate |
Base shape | Cuneate | Cordate to slightly cordate to round |
Margin | Flat | Slightly revolute |
Apex shape | Obtuse | Mucronate |
Texture | Membranous | Coriaceous |
Colouration (in sicco) | Greenish-grey to greenish-tan | Dark green to olive-green |
Venation | Camptodromous, secondary veins acute | Brochidodromous, secondary veins obtuse to round |
Glands | Absent | 2–7-glandular near the margin, glands punctate, slightly impressed |
Indumentum | ||
Pubescence type | Hirtellous | Velutinous |
Colouration | White | Tan to yellowish brown |
Hair morphology | Multicelled, acicular (unbranched), base bulbous | 1-celled, V-shaped (2-branched), delicate, foot absent |
This unique hair morphology was first described in Malpighiaceae and has since been referred to as malpighiaceous hairs in taxonomic literature (e.g.
Keraunea was proposed by
Since Neuropeltis shows malpighiaceous hairs in several species (
Meanwhile, the family placement of Keraunea has been the subject of two subsequent morphological and phylogenetic studies. A few days after the online publication of the preprint of this study (
The misidentification of herbarium sheets sampled in phylogenetic studies highlights the need to adequately address how molecular phylogenetic studies should proceed with contaminated and/or misidentified sequences for large-sized phylogenetic analyses. Hence, taxonomic expertise is fundamental to ensure the correct taxonomic identification of DNA samples in phylogenetic studies. On a superficial analysis of the first 60 open-access papers on plant phylogenomics retrieved for 2022 from the Google Scholar database (https://scholar.google.com, accessed 10 Jan. 2023), we gathered that only 22% of these studies included a taxonomic expert on the group (i.e. someone who has already published floras or taxonomic revisions in the analysed groups) in the authorship of the paper. Additionally, 78% of these studies do not specify the taxonomic criteria used in the study or mention the taxonomic specialist who would have confirmed the identification of the sampled specimens (see supplementary files). This scenario is worrisome since it might be a reflection of the view of biological collections by some plant molecular systematists as immutable DNA archives. This misconception of the dynamic nature of plant systematics and the need to constantly revise the determinations of the consulted specimens in the light of new evidence can be easily tackled by association and collaboration with a taxonomic expert(s) in the study group.
While large phylogenomic projects, such as RBG Kew Tree of Life (
It is not unusual for plant material of several species to be mounted on the same herbarium sheet, which is labelled as a single species. Here is how it can happen:
In an era of expansion of molecular plant systematic techniques, we here draw attention to the importance of taxonomic skills in guaranteeing the correct sampling for molecular phylogenetic studies and the ability to critically interpret the hypotheses in the light of additional biological evidence before accepting inaccurate results. For future phylogenetic and/or phylogenomic studies that rely on sampling herbarium specimens, we suggest simple recommendations to ensure rigorous taxonomic standards to minimise human error and/or taxonomic biases of any kind:
Molecular DNA sequences can be very helpful in classifying plant taxa when morphology is conflicting or of a doubtful interpretation, with molecular phylogenetic placement being a popular tool to potentially accelerate the discovery of systematic relationships. Nonetheless, it needs to be done with a critical assessment of the obtained results in the context of a range of biological information (i.e. macromorphology, micromorphology, ecology, reproductive biology, phytochemistry, etc.), particularly when the new hypotheses are disruptive to the current classification system, or incongruent with the current knowledge of the plant groups in question. Genetic and genomic techniques are, much like any others, prone to lapses, which further stresses the need for caution in adopting molecular phylogenetic results into a currently accepted classification system. In an era of expansion of molecular plant systematic techniques, we here draw attention to the vital role of morphology and experienced taxonomic skills in guaranteeing adequate and reliable sampling for molecular phylogenetic studies and the ability to critically interpret the obtained hypotheses in the light of a range of biological evidence, particularly the most easily accessible, morphological characters.
We thank the researchers and curators of all consulted herbaria (Cassio van den Berg, Maria Candida H. Mamede, Maria Lenise Guedes and Viviane Jono) for their assistance; and Climbiê F. Hall, Domingos Cardoso, Fabián Michelangeli, Geovane S. Siqueira, Melissa Hutchison, and Olivier Lachenaud for permission to reproduce their photographs. RFA was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from CNPq (#317720/2021-0) and FAPEG (#202110267000867), Brazil.