Background and aims – Hedgerows may play a crucial ecological role in maintaining connectivity in fragmented Atlantic Forest landscapes. However, little is known about their contribution to ecological processes, particularly seed rain.

Material and methods – To test this, we conducted a study in Ritápolis, Minas Gerais, Brazil, comparing a 500-meter-long hedgerow corridor with a 10.5-hectare forest fragment. We installed 20 seed collectors in each area and monitored them for a year, testing the hypothesis that hedgerow corridors have equivalent levels of litter, fruit, and seed production compared to preserved forest fragments.

Key results – The results revealed that hedgerows can present greater fruit richness and higher litter dry weight than adjacent forest fragments. Furthermore, the other parameters evaluated in these hedgerows were equivalent to those observed in fragmented areas, reinforcing their importance in biodiversity conservation in rural landscapes. These findings directly support the hypothesis tested, highlighting hedgerows as essential structures for maintaining ecological processes, increasing environmental connectivity, and mitigating the impacts of forest fragmentation.

Conclusion – This study contributes to the understanding of the role of ecological connectivity in hedgerows, paving the way for further research that can expand this knowledge.

ecological connectivity, ecosystem resilience, environmental governance, fragmentation mitigation, habitat restoration, leaf litter, seed dispersal, sustainable land management, vegetation corridors

A notable feature of the south-eastern Brazilian landscape is the presence of hedgerows, which emerged from the spontaneous establishment of vegetation in ditches constructed by slaves during European colonization, particularly in the 18^th and 19^th centuries (Castro and van den Berg 2013; Alvarenga et al. 2025). Locally known as Corredores de Valo, these structures are widespread throughout the region (Alvarenga et al. 2025). Given their age, hedgerows may support diverse plant communities with species composition comparable to nearby forest fragments (Wehling and Diekmann 2009; Castro and van den Berg 2013). Additionally, they can provide essential habitat and movement corridors for fauna, facilitating seed dispersal and contributing to ecosystem connectivity (Rocha et al. 2011; Mesquita and Passamani 2012; Oliveira et al. 2015). These characteristics suggest that hedgerows play a key role in maintaining the functional connectivity of fragmented landscapes within the Atlantic Forest (Castro and van den Berg 2013), reinforcing the need for proper management to ensure their long-term conservation and ecological functionality.

Since the construction of these hedgerows to the present day, the Atlantic Forest has undergone extensive land-use transformations, giving rise to major urban centres and some of Brazil’s most productive agricultural lands (Joly et al. 2014; Scarano and Ceotto 2015). These developments have led to severe habitat fragmentation, with less than 11% of the ecodomain’s original extent remaining (Ribeiro et al. 2009; Joly et al. 2014). As one of the world’s most critical biodiversity hotspots (Myers et al. 2000; Laurance 2009), the Atlantic Forest requires urgent conservation and restoration measures to prevent further degradation and preserve its ecological integrity (Ribeiro et al. 2009). However, one of the main challenges is the scattered distribution of remaining forest fragments, many of which are interspersed among agricultural lands and private properties, making it difficult to establish large new protected areas (Rezende et al. 2018). Given these constraints, preserving smaller landscape elements—such as hedgerows, isolated trees, and tree rows—may be crucial in promoting biodiversity conservation while maintaining land-use productivity (Kremen and Merenlender 2018).

Beyond their role in maintaining landscape connectivity, hedgerows may actively contribute to ecosystem functionality by influencing key ecological processes (Rocha et al. 2011). These structures, formed through spontaneous vegetation growth, can support plant communities and faunal species by promoting seed dispersal and habitat continuity (Castro and van den Berg 2013). Their presence may enhance natural regeneration in fragmented landscapes, making them potentially valuable components of conservation strategies for the Atlantic Forest (Mesquita and Passamani 2012; Oliveira et al. 2015). Thus, understanding the ecological indicators that regulate these processes is essential for developing effective conservation practices. Among the most relevant indicators, litter production and seed rain may offer critical insights into nutrient cycling, soil function, and species recruitment (Sayer 2005). Litter may serve as a primary nutrient source for fragmented environments, and its reduction could negatively impact soil biological activity and nutrient retention (Gomes Júnior et al. 2022). Similarly, seed rain could play a vital role in landscape regeneration, fostering the establishment of new individuals and species, while supporting frugivorous fauna reliant on fruit availability (Jesus et al. 2012; Jara-Guerrero et al. 2020; Santos et al. 2023).

To develop effective conservation strategies, it is necessary to understand the functional aspects of these ecosystems. Current research efforts should incorporate indicators that elucidate the processes that precede plant establishment. Seed rain, for example, can be a critical factor in landscape regeneration, influencing immediate and long-term ecosystem recovery through species recruitment and establishment (Jara-Guerrero et al. 2020; Santos et al. 2023). Since fruit and seed dispersal plays an essential role in restoring fragmented habitats while supporting frugivorous fauna, hedgerows can help reinforce ecological connectivity, facilitating species movement and habitat expansion in agricultural landscapes (Montgomery et al. 2020). In this way, by promoting natural regeneration and mitigating the effects of fragmentation, hedgerows can function as ecological corridors and conservation assets (Montgomery et al. 2020). Thus, studying these structures through the lens of ecosystem indicators can provide valuable insights into their contributions to Atlantic Forest resilience and biodiversity conservation.

Despite this potential, hedgerows remain conceptually and functionally distinct from conventional ecological corridors, which have received considerable attention in conservation science, often through planned restoration or the identification of existing forest fragments with formal ecological functions (Beltrão et al. 2024). In contrast, hedgerows represent a distinct category of landscape elements whose ecological potential remains poorly explored. Originating from historical land-use practices rather than intentional conservation design, these structures are yet understudied within ecological theory, particularly regarding their functional contributions to tropical fragmented ecosystems. While most studies on corridors emphasize species movement and connectivity, few have addressed whether such spontaneous formations can sustain ecosystem processes foundational to habitat integrity, such as litter and seed deposition.

In this study, we compared litter, fruit, and seed production between a hedgerow and a preserved Atlantic Forest fragment in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Our goal was to determine whether hedgerows contribute equivalently to the maintenance of key ecological processes, particularly seed rain. We hypothesized that hedgerows exhibit similar levels of litter production, as well as fruit and seed abundance and richness, compared to forest fragments, emphasizing their potential ecological role in fragmented landscapes. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine these ecosystem functioning variables across these two distinct habitat types. To test this, we installed 20 seed collectors at each site, monitoring litter, fruit, and seed deposition over the course of one year.

We found significant differences in fruit richness between the two habitats (χ² = 11.87, p < 0.001), with the hedgerow exhibiting higher richness (50.70 ± 3.12 SE) than the forest fragment (35.45 ± 2.59 SE) (Fig. 2A). Seed richness, however, did not differ between the hedgerow (13.65 ± 1.55 SE) and the fragment (12.15 ± 0.96 SE) (χ² = 0.31, p = 0.575). Moreover, fruit abundance in the hedgerow (408.85 ± 61.76 SE) did not differ from that in the forest fragment (323.65 ± 73.74 SE) (χ² = 3.04, p = 0.081). This pattern was also similar for seed abundance, which did not differ statistically between the forest fragment (138.65 ± 79.61 SE) and the hedgerow (51.75 ± 8.38 SE) (χ² = 0.31, p = 0.579).

Figure 2. 

Fruit richness (A), dry weight of branches and leaves (B), and dry weight of fruits (C) found in seed collectors in forest fragment and hedgerow environments. Opaque dots and line segments show model-adjusted means and 95% confidence intervals, as predicted by the corresponding GLM.

The dry weight of branches and leaves was statistically higher in the hedgerow (1607.40 mg ± 193.81 SE) than in the fragment (1014.30 mg ± 92.95 SE) (χ² = 8.950, p = 0.005) (Fig. 2B). Similarly, the hedgerow (36.36 mg ± 6.10 SE) also had higher values for fruit dry weight compared to the forest fragment (8.11 mg ± 2.13 SE) (χ² = 19.99, p < 0.001) (Fig. 2C). However, seed dry weight did not vary statistically between the hedgerow (1.65 mg ± 0.27 SE) and the forest fragment (1.51 mg ± 0.34 SE) (χ² = 0.092, p = 0.762).

Finally, there was no significant difference in the diameter/length ratio of the fruits between the hedgerow (0.69 ± 0.06 SE) and the forest fragment (0.64 ± 0.04 SE) (p > 0.05).

Our results revealed that hedgerows can present greater fruit richness and higher dry weight of litter than adjacent forest fragments. Furthermore, the other parameters evaluated in these hedgerows were equivalent to those found in fragmented areas, reinforcing their importance in biodiversity conservation in rural landscapes. These findings directly address the central aim of this study, demonstrating that hedgerows, which developed over narrow trenches manually excavated by enslaved people to demarcate land boundaries, are capable of sustaining ecological processes comparable to those observed in preserved forest fragments. Over time, these trenches were colonized by vegetation and evolved into continuous forested strips, now functioning as living fences embedded within agricultural landscapes. The patterns observed in ecosystem functioning indicators reinforce the capacity of these structures to maintain key processes within fragmented landscapes, validating the study’s hypothesis and emphasizing their role in nutrient cycling, species recruitment, and ecosystem regeneration. This study is the first to assess ecosystem functioning indicators, with special emphasis on seed rain, in hedgerows within tropical landscapes. These findings offer a novel contribution to understanding the role of such structures in ecological connectivity and conservation planning.

Due to their narrow structure and distinct environmental exposure, hedgerows promote conditions that facilitate seed deposition and subsequent nutrient retention (Wehling and Diekmann 2009; Castro and van den Berg 2013). Thus, the interaction between increased light availability and wind circulation may favour the continuous accumulation of branches and leaves, influencing organic matter deposition. Furthermore, Castro and van den Berg (2013) demonstrated that these corridors support vegetation with a high basal area, which may explain the greater dry weight of fruits in hedgerows compared to forest fragments. It is also noteworthy that seed richness and fruit diameter/length ratio did not differ significantly between hedgerows and forest fragments. Considering their spatial proximity, the presence of similarly structured arboreal vegetation, and the shared use of seed dispersers, this outcome may reflect a functional similarity across habitats. Such equivalence suggests that even narrow hedgerows can maintain ecological attributes comparable to those observed in adjacent forest fragments, reinforcing their conservation value within rural landscapes.

The increased fruit richness observed in these corridors reinforces their possible role as key areas for interactions between fauna and flora, which could promote ecological processes fundamental to the connectivity of fragmented landscapes (Harvey 2000). Hedgerows can serve as essential refuges for diverse fauna, especially small vertebrates, and arthropods, providing shelter and ample availability of food resources (Pulido-Santacruz and Renjifo 2011; Mesquita and Passamani 2012). These environments, characterized by dense and continuous vegetation, can function as strategic areas for the persistence and movement of species that depend on habitat heterogeneity and shading conditions to survive (Harvey et al. 2005; Castro and van den Berg 2013). Vegetation cover in these corridors can contribute to microclimatic regulation, reducing thermal amplitude and providing a more stable environment for fauna. Furthermore, by facilitating seed dispersal by several frugivorous groups—including birds, primates, rodents, and insects—hedgerows play a crucial role in biodiversity conservation, allowing multiple species to find suitable conditions for feeding and reproduction. In this context, Pulido-Santacruz and Renjifo (2011) highlighted the important role of hedgerows as foraging, breeding, and movement sites for birds across the landscape of the Cordillera Central of the Colombian Andes, and Levey et al. (2005) showed that ecological corridors significantly increase seed dispersal by birds between connected habitat fragments in South Carolina, USA. These data highlight the importance of hedgerows as key elements in structuring ecological mosaics such as those found in the Atlantic Forest, supporting populations of frugivorous animals and promoting gene flows between isolated areas.

The relevance of hedgerows goes beyond biodiversity conservation, as they also contribute to forest regeneration and help mitigate the impacts of environmental fragmentation and climate change (Montgomery et al. 2020; Pereira et al. 2024; Ripple et al. 2024). In the context of governance, the preservation of these structures should be incorporated into public policies, ensuring incentives for conservation and recognition as key elements for ecosystem resilience (Pereira et al. 2024; Alvarenga et al. 2025). As can be seen in other regions of the world, such as other hedgerows (Wehling and Diekmann 2009) and structures such as the traditional orchards of Central Europe (Sattler et al. 2024), hedgerows represent an effective alternative to balance conservation and agricultural production, promoting ecological connectivity in areas heavily modified by land use (Wehling and Diekmann 2009; Montgomery et al. 2020; Alvarenga et al. 2025). However, the conservation of areas such as these depends on strategic decisions by environmental managers and coordinated efforts between landowners, local communities, and researchers (Sattler et al. 2024). Implementing policies that strengthen the governance of these corridors can be crucial to ensuring the continuity of vital ecological flows, protecting biodiversity, and preserving landscape integrity (Alvarenga et al. 2025).

The conservation of hedgerows should be treated as a priority in environmental governance strategies, especially in regions where remaining native vegetation is scarce and highly fragmented, such as in Minas Gerais (Santos et al. 2018). As seen in other threatened ecosystems, replacing ecological corridors with homogeneous vegetation formations can compromise environmental functionality and reduce the ability of these areas to serve as reserves for biodiversity and carbon (Pereira et al. 2024). Conservation policies should focus on protecting these structures, ensuring connectivity between forest fragments, and preventing degradation caused by inappropriate land-use changes (Harvey et al. 2005; Alvarenga et al. 2025). In regions where native vegetation loss remains significant, preventing fragmentation should take precedence over restoration, as the economic benefits of preserving functional ecosystems far outweigh those of introducing vegetation into already degraded areas (Pereira et al. 2024). Therefore, effective governance must balance conservation and restoration, prioritizing the maintenance of hedgerows and ensuring that these spaces continue to fulfil their essential ecological functions in the landscape.

Our study contributes to the understanding of the role of hedgerows in ecological connectivity, paving the way for further investigations that can expand this knowledge even further. Future research may deepen the analysis of how floristic composition influences the functionality of these corridors, as well as explore more precisely the specific role of different disperser groups. Additionally, assessing the effectiveness of public policies aimed at protecting these structures could provide more refined guidelines for their conservation. Advancing in these directions will support more effective conservation strategies, further strengthening the importance of hedgerows in biodiversity preservation.

This paper is a tribute to the first author, Angélica Aparecida Ávila, who died in the Brumadinho dam collapse on January 25, 2019. Angélica was a brilliant student whose passion for research inspired those around her. We hope that this study will not only be a valuable contribution to the understanding of seed rain but also a way to keep Angélica’s legacy alive, bringing comfort and recognition to her family and friends. Angélica Aparecida Ávila set up the field experiment and collected the data with financial support from FAPEMIG. Crislaine Paula de Oliveira thanks FAPEMIG (N° 12984/2024) for grant support. Cássio Cardoso Pereira, Crislaine Paula de Oliveira, Sérgio Gualberto Martins, and Gislene Carvalho de Castro thank the Universidade Federal de São João del-Rei (UFSJ) for its continuous support. We would like to thank Tatiana Sozzi Miguel and Sabrina Carvalho for their help in organizing the data.