The genus Pulsatilla Mill. (Ranunculaceae) comprises 48 recognized species and an additional 11 reported hybrids (Euro+Med 2006+; POWO 2025). The members of the genus are distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, mainly in Europe and temperate Asia, extending east to Japan (Tamura 1995). Of the total number of species, 12 are found in Europe, two in North America, and the remaining 34 in Asia, where the genus has its greatest diversity and centre of distribution (Sramkó et al. 2019). Several species are native to alpine and subalpine habitats, reflecting their adaptation to cold, mountainous regions. Due to their large and decorative flowers, many Pulsatilla species are widely cultivated as garden plants (Szczecińska et al. 2016; Weryszko-Chmielewska et al. 2017). In addition, some taxa are also known for their medicinal properties (Zhong et al. 2022), particularly in traditional medicine. Despite their ecological and horticultural importance, the taxonomic identification of wild Pulsatilla species remains a challenge due to overlapping morphological features (Grey-Wilson 2014), unresolved intraspecific variations (Li et al. 2020), and frequent hybridization (Valuyskikh et al. 2020).

The Balkan Peninsula represents a hotspot of genetic and species diversity and served as an important source for the dispersal of lineages to northern regions of the European continent following the end of the Pleistocene glaciation (Hewitt 2011; Nieto Feliner 2014; Španiel and Rešetnik 2022). The Balkans is an outstanding centre of plant species diversity and endemism and is undoubtedly one of the floristically richest regions in Europe (Tomović et al. 2014; Frajman et al. 2014; Vuksanović et al. 2016). It harbours around 6,500 plant species, of which over a third (~2,650) are endemic and around 400 are considered local endemics (Horvat et al. 1974; Kryštufek and Reed 2004; Stevanović et al. 2007). These numbers are probably underestimated, given that Greece alone, including Crete and its islands, hosts 5,752 species, of which 1,278 are endemic to the country (Dimopoulos et al. 2013).

In particular, the high mountain systems of the Dinarides (Dinaric Alps) exhibit an extraordinary diversity of ecosystems, species richness, and geological substrates (Horvat et al. 1974; Stevanović et al. 2009; Millaku et al. 2013; Caković et al. 2017). Despite a long history of botanical research in the Balkans (Grisebach 1843; Pančić 1875; Hayek 1924–1933; Turrill 1929; Fukarek 1954; Micevski 1970; etc.), currently, there is a notable reduction in floristic fieldwork across certain areas. Due to past conflicts and prolonged political instability in parts of the Western Balkans, floristic research in the region has declined significantly. Countries like Kosovo remain under-explored from a floristic perspective and still lack comprehensive, up-to-date checklists, an important gap that hinders phylogeographic research and poses challenges for effective conservation planning (Frajman et al. 2014; Krasniqi et al. 2019, 2020; Berisha et al. 2020; Millaku et al. 2025).

Given the exceptional biodiversity of the Balkan Peninsula and the floristic knowledge gaps that persist in Kosovo, it is essential to update data on important plant genera such as Pulsatilla. A better understanding of the distribution, ecology, and diversity of Pulsatilla species in Kosovo is crucial, not only for a more accurate and comprehensive assessment of the country’s flora, but also for the floristic and biogeographical knowledge of Southeast Europe as a whole. Such data can provide valuable insights for phylogeographic studies and have important implications for the development of conservation strategies (Wagensommer 2023), especially with regard to ongoing environmental changes and threats to biodiversity (Gavilan 2003).

Records of Pulsatilla taxa in Kosovo are scarce and sometimes contradictory. Early floristic and vegetation works (Gajić 1970; Rexhepi 1986; Diklić 1992) mentioned Pulsatilla taxa, often without clear locality data. Later accounts (Krivošej 2013; Tomović et al. 2014) reported them at the subspecies level, but either with uncertain taxonomy or again without precise locality information. These inconsistencies highlight the need for updated field investigations.

In this study, we aim to document the diversity of the genus Pulsatilla in Kosovo by providing an updated list of known species and subspecies, analysing their distribution, and assessing their conservation status according to IUCN criteria. In addition, we provide new data specifically on Pulsatilla montana subsp. jankae and Pulsatilla halleri subsp. rhodopaea, whose occurrence in Kosovo has only now been confirmed.

The present study is based on extensive field research conducted between 2023 and 2025, supplemented by a thorough and critical examination of the existing herbarium specimens of the genus Pulsatilla, which are kept in the herbarium of the University of Prishtina (UPH). Voucher specimens of all recorded taxa of Pulsatilla are deposited in the same herbarium. The taxonomic identification and determination was based on standard floristic and taxonomic works (Rummelspacher 1965; Micevski 1985; Diklić 1992; Tutin et al. 2010; Pils 2016; Jäger et al. 2017). The nomenclature and taxonomic framework applied in this study follow the Euro+Med Plant Base (Euro+Med 2006+). Nevertheless, it should be noted that the infraspecific classification within P. montana and P. halleri remains taxonomically complex and subject to different interpretations. For example, Plants of the World Online (POWO 2025) does not recognise any subspecies within P. montana, while Euro+Med (2006+) does. This emphasises the need for further research to clarify the taxonomic delimitation.

This study provides important new insights into the presence and distribution of Pulsatilla taxa in Kosovo and offers valuable data for regional biodiversity research and conservation planning. Confirmed localities, ecological preferences, and population observations contribute significantly to the understanding of these taxa in the Balkan Peninsula.

Pulsatilla alpina subsp. apiifolia is already listed as Endangered (EN) in the Red Book of the Vascular Flora of Kosovo (Millaku et al. 2013). Our results confirm the occurrence of this taxon in the Albanian Alps, where it inhabits alpine grasslands on Mt Gjeravica. These populations are of high biogeographical importance. As stated by Barina and Pifkó (2011), P. alpina is extremely rare in the Balkans, and the only documented populations in Kosovo, Albania, and Montenegro are restricted to the neighbouring mountain massifs of the Albanian Alps. Its regional importance for the conservation of the species is therefore beyond doubt and it deserves to continue to be legally protected and monitored in its habitat. Furthermore, the distribution of Pulsatilla alpina subsp. apiifolia and P. vernalis corresponds exactly to the Alpine sector of Kosovo as defined in the recent biogeographical regionalization (Berisha et al. 2025), which underlines the importance of high mountain habitats in the Albanian Alps of Kosovo for nature conservation.

The case of Pulsatilla halleri subsp. rhodopaea is particularly noteworthy. Its occurrence in Kosovo was previously vague and based only on a generic reference in a regional checklist (Tomović et al. 2014), in which it was listed without further details for the Dukagjini Plain. In addition, a misidentification of this taxon as P. halleri subsp. halleri on Mt Koritnik (Hashani and Shuka 2013) further obscured its status. Based on our field work and morphological observations, these populations belong to Pulsatilla halleri subsp. rhodopaea, which is supported by the typical leaf arrangement, dense indumentum, elvevational range, and is consistent with descriptions from neighbouring Macedonia and Bulgaria (Jordanov and Kozhuharov 1970; Micevski 1985; Tashev 2008). Our study corrects this misidentification and provides clear evidence from both Pashtrik and Koritnik mountains. Given the narrow distribution (EOO = 4.7 km²), the limited AOO (Koritnik: 3.3 ha; Pashtrik: 58 ha) and the confirmed presence in only two locations more than 9 km apart, the taxon qualifies for the IUCN category Vulnerable VU B1a+2a (IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee 2024).

The identity and distribution of Pulsatilla montana subsp. jankae in Kosovo also required clarification. In some previous reports, this taxon was incorrectly identified as Pulsatilla vulgaris subsp. grandis (Wender.) Zämelis (Krivošej 2013; Prodanović et al. 2020), a Pontic relict restricted to Central and Eastern Europe with its southernmost distribution area in the Pannonian Plain. Our critical revision of the available specimens and comparison with diagnostic characters confirm that all these records from Kosovo actually refer to P. montana subsp. jankae. Although morphologically similar to P. vulgaris subsp. grandis, especially in the early flowering stage, P. montana subsp. jankae differs by narrower leaves, linear involucral bracts and nodding flowers. The identification is further confirmed by comparative herbarium specimens from the region (e.g. TUB 011026 (W), from the Vranje area, Serbia), which were collected near the border with Kosovo. Moreover, the distribution of P. montana subsp. jankae in Kosovo corresponds well with the delineation of the subspecies’ distribution ranges in the Balkans as proposed by Rummelspacher (1965). In contrast, P. montana subsp. balkana is restricted to Mt Gjeravica and has shown a stable population trend over the last 20 years. Although both taxa are currently not threatened, their habitats are vulnerable to land-use change, climate alterations and succession. We recommend regular monitoring and ecological surveillance, especially for the locally endemic P. montana subsp. balkana.

Finally, the confirmed occurrence of Pulsatilla vernalis in the Sharri Mountains represents a new chorological addition for this massif in Kosovo. The species is well represented in both the Albanian Alps of Kosovo and the Sharri Mts, forming healthy and viable populations in subalpine and alpine siliceous grasslands. While P. vernalis is considered threatened or declining in many parts of Europe (Grzyl and Ronikier 2011; Betz et al. 2013), our data suggest that populations in Kosovo remain stable and often occur in protected or semi-natural landscapes. Nevertheless, the species’ ecological sensitivity and early spring phenology make it a good indicator of potential climate change impacts, justifying long-term monitoring.

To summarise, our results underline the floristic richness and conservation value of Pulsatilla taxa in Kosovo. While some taxa such as P. alpina subsp. apiifolia and P. halleri subsp. rhodopaea require active conservation measures, others such as P. montana and P. vernalis should remain under regular ecological monitoring to detect early signs of population decline or habitat disturbance.